The dark blocks that occasionally appear in the rover’s path are called floating rocks, and the team is looking higher into the hills to determine their origin. As intriguing as these blocks and boulders are, they pose a serious challenge for the rover’s drivers. They managed to get the rover to its intended stopping point, which is a significant achievement in itself. The mixture of large rocks and sand is completely unfavorable for movement. The risk of the rover shifting at the wrong moment, and the robotic arm colliding with a rock that the instrument is currently exploring, would be too great.
On December 5, 2024, the rover successfully arrived at a new exploration quadrangle—the Altadena quadrangle, named after the city on Earth located very close to the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The initial activity in the Altadena quadrangle was fairly typical, including observations both near and far from the rover, depending on what was visible on the ground. Thousands of meters from the rover (five-eighths of a mile and beyond), ChemCam captured a mosaic of wind-sculpted structures known as yardangs crowning Mount Sharp.
NASA’s Curiosity rover acquired this image using its left navigation camera on sol 4384—the 4384th Martian day of the Mars Science Laboratory mission—December 5, 2024, at 19:08:43 UTC. NASA/JPL-Caltech
On December 8, 2024, the rover continued to navigate the large Texoli hill. Much of the bedrock it recently traversed looked quite similar—pale, layered bedrock—but this workspace had several interesting features, including a “direction of travel” image that shows the rover’s future route.
There were numerous cracks and darker areas near the rover. The cracks or veins were too far from the rover for contact science, but ChemCam LIBS was able to target one of the most prominent ones in the “Garlock Rift.” Fortunately for the contact science instruments (APXS and MAHLI), the darker areas were within arm’s reach. Some of the darker areas were flatter and plate-like in appearance, while others had a more amorphous, teardrop-shaped shape. Both types have their own challenges. The flatter ones collect dust on their flat surfaces, so ideally they should be cleaned with a DRT (dust removal tool) before we analyze them, but they often appear too fragile, and we worry that some of the layers may chip or peel off. The amorphous ones have uneven surfaces that can collect sand and dust, making it difficult to achieve a good placement.
NASA’s Curiosity rover captured this image, showing patches and clumps of darker material in its working area, on December 8, 2024. Curiosity acquired this image with its Mast Camera (Mastcam) on Martian Sol 4387—the 4387th Martian day of the Mars Science Laboratory mission—at 17:44:17 UTC. NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS
On December 10, 2024, the spacecraft captured a beautiful view of the northern tip of Texoli, as seen in the foreground of the image. Unfortunately, the cliffs that make this view so beautiful also prevent the spacecraft from safely extending its arm for touch-and-go exploration.
NASA’s Curiosity rover acquired this image using its left navigation camera on sol 4389—the 4389th Martian day of the Mars Science Laboratory mission—December 10, 2024, at 21:03:54 UTC. NASA/JPL-Caltech
On December 12, 2024, Curiosity continued to make steady progress through the bedrock of Mount Sharp and spent time exploring the northern base of Texoli Hill, with beautiful views of nearby Wilkerson Hill and Gould Mesa, while digging around the work area to complete an impressive to-do list for a traveling geologist on Mars.
The rocks beneath the rover’s wheels were dusty, pale bedrock with varying textures. Scientists used the Dust Removal Tool (DRT), MAHLI, and APXS instruments to study the lighter, smoother bedrock at Calabasas Peak and the slightly darker, coarser bedrock at Triunfo Canyon. The ChemCam team used laser-induced emission spectroscopy (LIBS) to analyze the composition of the coarser bedrock at Chilao Peak and a vein cutting through the bedrock at Ojai Peak, and Mastcam provided imagery to document each target.
This image was acquired by NASA’s Curiosity rover using its left navigation camera on December 17, 2024, at 23:24:13 UTC—sol 4396, or Martian day 4396, or the Mars Science Laboratory mission. NASA/JPL-Caltech
The Mastcam team collected numerous images and mosaics within and outside the work area. Two stereo mosaics documented a fracture network in the bedrock near Fern Dell, and a stereo mosaic of Amir’s Garden will be used to monitor potential rock deformations. Several single-frame images of troughs within the work area will be used to investigate active surface processes. Mastcam then created a stereo mosaic of Jaw Canyon to depict potential aeolian ripples and used it to capture long-range ChemCam images of Grant Lake Crater in the direction of travel.
NASA’s Curiosity rover captured this image with its left navigation camera on December 12, 2024, at 23:15:47 UTC—sol 4391, or Martian day 4391, of the Mars Science Laboratory mission. NASA/JPL-Caltech
On February 7, 2025, the rover continued along Texoli Hill, heading toward the narrow box-shaped formations in the distance—the next key waypoint. These are a series of large ridges that, based on orbital data, appear to be a complex fault network.
NASA’s Curiosity rover captured this image of its workspace using the Rear Hazard Avoidance Camera (Hazcam) on Sol 4447—or Mars Day 4447—of the Mars Science Laboratory mission, February 8, 2025, at 13:54:13 UTC. NASA/JPL-Caltech
Sols 4443-4444, February 3, 2025. The rover has advanced approximately 23 meters (approximately 75 feet) along the Mount Sharp Ascent Routing (MSAR) route. Mastcam plans to take 42 images, including ChemCam LIBS spots, several meteorite fragments, sandy depressions between bedrock blocks, and interesting vein structures in the surrounding terrain. Navcam plans to conclude this science block with a large dust devil survey. After our remote science work is complete, we have allocated time from approximately 3:00 PM to 10:45 PM for our full contact science mission. Fortunately, SRAP passed again, and we took the opportunity to schedule two targets—the San Rafael Hills as our DRT target and the Ellison Mine as a potential meteorite target.
NASA’s Curiosity rover captured this image from about 25 centimeters (about 10 inches) away from the polygonally fractured bedrock known as Coldwater Canyon. Curiosity captured the image using its Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI), located on a turret at the end of the rover’s robotic arm, on February 2, 2025—sol 4441, or Martian day 4441, of the Mars Science Laboratory mission—at 08:40:11 UTC. NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS
On February 5, 2025, Mars reached 40 degrees solar longitude. Solar longitude is how we prefer to measure our position in the Martian year. Each year begins at 0 degrees and increases to 360 degrees by the end of the year. For those working on the Environmental Science Ventures (ENV) team, 40 degrees is a special time, as it marks the beginning of the annual Aphelion Cloud Belt (ACB) observation campaign. At this time of year, the north polar ice cap is exposed to sunlight, causing it to sublimate and release water vapor into the atmosphere. At the same time, the atmosphere as a whole is cooler because Mars is near aphelion (its greatest distance from the Sun).
Together, these two factors mean that Mars’ atmosphere is actively forming clouds at this time of year.
The drive ended prematurely, having traveled only about 4 meters instead of the planned 38 (about 13 feet versus 125 feet). Initially, the research team thought this might be due to the rover’s left front wheel hitting a large rock, but after motion data was collected, it turned out that the right front wheel’s steering motor was also signaling a rock on that side, so Curiosity stopped driving, awaiting further instructions from Earth.
NASA’s Mars rover Curiosity captured this image showing its left front wheel and the large rock it ran over (visible in the lower left); another rock blocked the right front wheel (visible in the right corner), so the rover paused while awaiting instructions from the mission team on Earth. Curiosity captured this image with its Front Hazard Avoidance Camera (Front Hazcam) on Sol 4444, or Martian day 4444, of the Mars Science Laboratory mission, February 5, 2025, at 08:38:01 UTC. NASA/JPL-Caltech
Sol 4454–4457, February 14, 2025. Curiosity continues to follow a strategic route, crossing the sulfate (salt) horizon toward box-shaped structures. The team noticed a strikingly pointed rock. Color images taken with Mastcam will reveal more about the textures of this rock and perhaps shed light on the geological forces that shaped it into this comical shape. The team has chosen a very appropriate name for this pyramid-shaped Martian feature: Pyramid Lake.
On the second sol of the plan, instruments on Curiosity’s “arm” were used to collect data on rocky features at our feet, including “Strawberry Peak”—a jagged patch of bedrock; “Lake Arrowhead”—a smooth patch of bedrock; and “Skyline Trail”—a dark floating rock. ChemCam will also collect chemical data on Skyline Trail, “Big Tujunga”—similar to Strawberry Peak—and “Momyer.”
NASA’s Curiosity rover captured this image of a pyramidal rock (left), a science target dubbed Pyramid Lake, using its left navigation camera. The image was taken on Sol 4452, or Martian day 4452, of the Mars Science Laboratory mission, February 13, 2025, at 14:22:06 UTC. NASA/JPL-Caltech
Sol 4458-4460: Winter Schminter, February 18, 2025. Operating Curiosity on Mars requires attention to a number of factors—power, data volume, terrain roughness, temperature—that impact the rover’s performance and safety. Winter means more heat to warm the rover’s gears and mechanisms and instruments, but the energy spent on heating means less energy for science observations.
The goal of additional Mastcam and ChemCam images was to document a feature that, unlike Marker Band, had been and would be in the rover’s field of view for a long time: Texoli Hill. Observations of potential sedimentary structures on the slope of Texoli motivated the RMI mosaic, and the opportunity to capture structures along its southeastern flank inspired the Mastcam mosaic. Good exposures of additional nearby bedrock structures on Mount Lukens and Chantry Flat attracted Mastcam attention, while another small mosaic focused on a type of linear depression in the sand bordering bedrock slabs. Environmental observations included Navcam movies of clouds and dust devils, Mastcam observations of atmospheric dust, and REMS and RAD measurements distributed over three sols.
NASA’s Curiosity rover captured this image of Texoli Hill, a Martian landmark approximately 160 meters (525 feet) tall composed of multiple layers that scientists are studying to learn more about the formation of this region of the Red Planet. The hill is located on 3-mile-high Mount Sharp inside Gale Crater, where Curiosity has landed and been exploring since 2012. This image was taken by the left navigation camera on February 17, 2025, at 17:51:56 UTC. NASA/JPL-Caltech
Sols 4468–4470, February 28, 2025. Curiosity continues to ascend roughly south through layered sulfate strata toward the “box-shaped” structures. Although the previous plan successfully advanced the rover approximately 21 meters south (about 69 feet), the drive ended with an awkwardly positioned wheel. Unfortunately, this made it too risky to open the robotic arm for contact exploration as part of this plan.
Several close-range Mastcam mosaics captured some layering and diagenetic structure in adjacent blocks, as well as some modern aeolian depressions in the finer-grained material around them.
The season on Mars (L_s ~ 50, or solar longitude near 50 degrees, approaching the southern winter) brings with it the opportunity to observe some recurring atmospheric phenomena: this is the season of the aphelion cloud belt, as well as the season of the Hadley cell transition, during which a more southerly air mass crosses Gale Crater.
This plan includes atmospheric observations with APXS (without moving your hand!) to measure argon and passive sky observations with ChemCam to measure O2, which is a small (less than 1%) but measurable component of the Martian atmosphere. The plan also includes dedicated cloud height observations, sky phase analysis, and video acquisition at the zenith and below the horizon to study clouds. As usual, the rover continues to monitor the current environment, measuring atmospheric opacity with images, temperature and humidity with REMS, and the local neutron environment with DAN.
NASA’s Curiosity rover captured this image, showing its wheel perched awkwardly on top of one of the rocks in this location, as well as the texture of the layered sulfate blocks of bedrock. The rover used its left navigation camera (Navcam), one of two stereo cameras positioned on either side of the rover’s mast, to record the image on Sol 4466 (the 4466th Martian day of the Mars Science Laboratory mission) at 00:34:10 UTC on February 28, 2025. NASA/JPL-Caltech
Sols 4473-4474, March 5, 2025. This image shows a rather unusual texture next to more ordinary-looking layered rocks. Just compare the small, lighter block in the foreground with the darker, larger rock in the center of the image. How to interpret this? Well, that’s the question. Did these sedimentary textures form at the time the rock was deposited, or shortly thereafter, or are they textures that formed much later, when water infiltrated the rock and formed new minerals within the existing rock?
The landscape immediately surrounding the rover also features interesting textures and, most importantly, more familiar-looking bedrock. The team defines bedrock as the rocks that make up the portion of the hill Curiosity is driving over. Dark blocks like the one shown here, which also occasionally appear along the rover’s path, are called floating rocks, and we always look higher into the hills to figure out where they might have come from. As interesting as all these blocks and boulders are, they pose a serious challenge for the rover’s drivers. They managed to get the rover to its intended stopping point, which is a significant achievement in itself. The mixture of large rocks and sand is completely unfavorable for movement. The risk of the rover shifting at the wrong moment and the robotic arm colliding with a rock the rover is currently exploring would have been too great. Therefore, out of concern for safety, the team decided to leave the robotic arm in place and focus on remote sensing.
NASA’s Curiosity rover captured this image of a boulder located about 40 meters (about 131 feet) from the rover using its Chemistry & Camera (ChemCam). The image, which shows the diversity of structures and textures around the rover, was acquired by Curiosity on March 5, 2025—sol 4471, or the 4471st Martian day of the Mars Science Laboratory mission—at 01:47:03 UTC. NASA/JPL-Caltech/LANL
Sol 4475–4476, March 7, 2025. The Curiosity rover team decided to head toward a particularly interesting jagged rock. The rover team hoped to conduct a detailed study of its surface texture. However, Curiosity did not receive the expected morning signal with the post-drive images. The MSL team did receive some data confirming that Curiosity’s drive had completed as expected. Unfortunately, without images to accurately determine Curiosity’s location relative to its intended destination, the team was unable to conduct any instrumental observations of nearby objects, known as “target” observations.
NASA’s Curiosity rover captured this image of Gould Mesa, named for a hill near NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California, with its right navigation camera on March 6, 2025—sol 4472, or Martian day 4472, of the Mars Science Laboratory mission—at 01:37:17 UTC. NASA/JPL-Caltech
Sol 4477-4478, March 10, 2025. The Curiosity rover winds between the impressive Gould Mesa and Texoli Hill, traversing the picturesque layered terrain. The target was a rock with a lumpy texture that is very different from the typical surrounding bedrock.
At the center of the rover’s work area was a large patch of soil and sand, which MAHLI and APXS jointly explored in the vicinity of a target named “Angeles Crest.” Nearby, Mastcam photographed depressions (depressions) along the axis of the sand ridge to understand their formation mechanisms. Mastcam’s map included several other targets that imaged the work area and surrounding areas, including “Potrero John,” a knobby rock within the work area; a rock with a similar knobby texture in the distance called “Modjeska Peak”; and a light-brown rock with a dome-shaped structure in the area of ”Humber Park.”
ChemCam selected a bedrock slab and loose rock within the study area to study their geochemical characteristics using the LIBS instrument at Millard Canyon and Cajon Pass, respectively. Further away, the team selected the slope of Gould Plateau and the upper portion of Texoli Hill to acquire ChemCam long-range RMI images to further examine the rocks, fractures, and layering.
The Environmental Protection Group has planned several activities focusing on cloud studies, documenting atmospheric opacity, measuring atmospheric optical thickness, and limiting aerosol scattering properties.
NASA’s Curiosity rover acquired this image with its right-hand navigation camera on March 10, 2025—sol 4476, or Martian day 4476, of the Mars Science Laboratory mission—at 04:15:44 UTC. NASA/JPL-Caltech
Sol 4479-4480, March 12, 2025. Numerous rocks with varied, interesting textures are visible, so Curiosity’s day begins with a series of targeted images of this interesting area. Two rocks directly ahead are unlike anything we’ve seen so far on the mission, so we’re eager to find out what they are. The exploration team is taking Mastcam images of two rocks with interesting textures, “Manzana Creek” and “Palo Comado,” as well as an area called “Vincent Gap,” where the rover disturbed bedrock and exposed regolith while driving over it as part of a previous mission. ChemCam is conducting LIBS observations of a feature called “Sturtevant Falls,” a concretion on the left block of our work area. ChemCam is also taking long-range RMI images in the direction of potential box structure formations (large veins).
The route passes through slightly flatter terrain than we’ve seen recently, with fewer large and sharp rocks. However, the rover’s developers will still have to carefully select the safest route.
NASA’s Curiosity rover captured this image of its workspace, including two rocks in front of it with a distinctive texture unlike anything seen previously during the mission. The image was taken by the left navigation camera on March 12, 2025—sol 4478, or Martian day 4478, of the Mars Science Laboratory mission—at 07:00:42 UTC. NASA/JPL-Caltech
Sols 4481-4483: Humber Pie, March 14, 2025 The rover successfully arrived at the Humber Park outcrop, which resembles a pie with a sandy core and a rough, rocky crust.
MAHLI is acquiring a large amount of data on rock structures in the Humber Park “crust” using three separate survey targets. One observation, at the Yerba Buena Ridge target, encompasses the structures evident along the outcrop front in the image above. The second target, Sepulveda Pass, has an interesting texture that required several stereo imaging options. The final target MAHLI shared with APXS was the South Fork target. This was the clearest location for APXS to deploy onto uncut bedrock blocks.
ChemCam also provided chemical data on a number of targets with varying textures. The “Ridge Route” target covered low-lying bedrock with fine layering consistently observed in the sulfate sequence, while “Toyon Canyon” covered a more lumpy portion of the Humber Park outcrop above Yerba Buena Ridge. The “Mount Lawlor” target was a mixture of both Ridge Route and Toyon Canyon—layered but located on an elevated portion of the outcrop, which also featured several unusual depression chains. ChemCam added two long-range mosaics of “Gould Mesa,” which captured various structures on this impressive hill approximately 100 meters ahead of the rover.
Mastcam focused on covering the entire Humber Park with a stereo mosaic, adding smaller mosaics across a sand trough and a bedrock block with potential cross-bedding in Rancho Los Feliz. Since simply scanning this side of Humber Park was insufficient, Mastcam and Navcam collaborated closely with rover operators to plan a mosaic of the other side of the outcrop to fully capture the “crust” of Humber Park.
This image was acquired by NASA’s Curiosity rover’s Front Hazcam on March 14, 2025—sol 4480, or Martian day 4480, of the Mars Science Laboratory mission—at 08:53:19 UTC. NASA/JPL-Caltech
Sols 4488–4490, March 21, 2025. Spring has begun in Earth’s Northern Hemisphere, but in Gale Crater on Mars, the rover is still heading toward the deepest Martian winter. Just a few weeks separate it from Mars’s aphelion—the time of its greatest distance from the Sun. The distance from Mars to the Sun varies more than the distance from Earth to the Sun due to Mars’s greater orbital eccentricity, and its influence on Martian weather is correspondingly greater.
The layered sulfate bedrock in this region is broken into large blocks, often making travel difficult. However, the planned trip on sol 4486 went very well, moving Curiosity nearly 35 meters (about 115 feet) south and upward.
The LIBS measurement and MAHLI observation were aimed at identifying a single characteristic, potentially diagenetic, feature visible among all the light blocks of the work area – a small greyish spot, similar to a vein or coating in the images (“Black Oak”).
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A long-range RMI mosaic survey was planned to examine some ridges on an as-yet-unnamed hill to the west. These ridges may indicate the same type of diagenetic activity that formed the box-shaped structures, Curiosity’s next major science target. A passive spectral raster survey was also planned for the potential box-shaped structure area.
Finally, the modern Martian atmosphere was investigated using measurements taken with APXS and the ChemCam passive imager to track the abundances of argon and oxygen, respectively, and how they change with the Martian seasons.
NASA’s Curiosity rover captured this image demonstrating the action of its robotic arm, which also shows a layered sulfate-bearing horizon resting on a light-colored bedrock block. Curiosity acquired the image using its right-hand navigation camera on March 20, 2025—sol 4486, or Martian day 4486, of the Mars Science Laboratory mission—at 15:18:42 UTC. NASA/JPL-Caltech
Sols 4491–4492, March 24, 2025. The drive was successful, with the rover traveling about 23 meters (about 75 feet), but the right front wheel ended up on a small, angular block. In the Front Hazcam image above, you can see the right front wheel on the small block, and the shadow of the rover and its mast overlooking all these interesting rocks for exploration.
NASA’s Mars rover Curiosity captured this image with its Front Hazard Avoidance Camera (Front Hazcam), showing the rover’s right front wheel resting on a small, angular block where it ended its roughly 75-foot (23-meter) drive. For stability, the Curiosity team prefers to have all six of the rover’s wheels on the ground before deploying its 7-foot (2.1-meter) robotic arm, so they opted instead for remote sensing and then another drive higher up the canyon. Curiosity captured this image on March 23, 2025—sol 4489, or the 4489th Martian day of the Mars Science Laboratory mission—at 15:24:49 UTC. NASA/JPL-Caltech
Sol 4493-4494, March 26, 2025. The dust storm study concludes the environmental observations for this sol, and then the dedicated geological team can get down to the serious business of studying the rocks. Despite the cloudy season, we still occasionally see dust rising, and having extra time for observation increases the chances of catching a gust of wind or a dust devil in action.
This image was acquired by NASA’s Curiosity rover using its left navigation camera on March 25, 2025—sol 4491, or Martian day 4491, of the Mars Science Laboratory mission—at 17:16:50 UTC. NASA/JPL-Caltech
Sol 4511-4512, April 14, 2025. Curiosity first acquired a Mastcam mosaic to study local stratigraphic relationships and diagenetic features. Several images were then acquired to document sandy basins between bedrock blocks to monitor active surface processes. A Navcam mosaic was also acquired to assess atmospheric dust. The science package included ChemCam LIBS observations of the “Santa Margarita” target bedrock and a distant RMI mosaic of the “Ghost Mountains” to search for possible box-shaped structures. Curiosity then used DRT, APXS, and MAHLI to examine thin-bedded bedrock in the work area on the Grotto target.
This image was taken by the left navigation camera aboard NASA’s Curiosity rover on Mars Day 4510 (April 14, 2025, 03:43:40 UTC). NASA/JPL-Caltech
Sols 4515-4517, April 18, 2025. The primary area of interest is so-called box features. These are large, stable ridges observed from orbit that may be the result of fracturing, fluid flow, and changes in the sulfate strata we are passing through.
This image was taken by the left navigation camera aboard NASA’s Curiosity rover on Sol 4514. NASA/JPL-Caltech
Sols 4518-4519, April 21, 2025. The rover’s workspace looks intriguing, with all its thin layers and weathering patterns, like a multi-layered cake. But then Mars did what it has done so many times recently: the team failed the slip risk assessment and was forced to keep the lever folded.
Obtaining APXS measurements and MAHLI images is just as exciting as acquiring Mastcam, ChemCam chemical composition, and RMI images. The plan begins with three Mastcam scans aimed at documenting small depressions forming around some rocks. This alone accounts for 15 frames. Then we assemble a ten-frame mosaic of a feature called “West Fork,” which features rocks in the midground of the landscape and reveals interesting layering. Finally, an 84-frame mosaic captures Texoli, one of the larger hills in our area, in all its glory. It reveals a number of interesting layers and structures, including some that may resemble what we might expect to see in box-like structures.
ChemCam is working on a target called “Lake Poway,” which represents the surrounding rock formations. ChemCam’s program also includes a long-distance RMI route up Mount Sharp to Yardang Station.
This image was taken by the Front Hazard Avoidance Camera (Front Hazcam) aboard NASA’s Curiosity rover on sol 4516. NASA/JPL-Caltech
Sols 4520-4521, April 23, 2025. The workspace was marked by noticeable delaminations along Curiosity’s entire line of sight, challenging the science team to find a safe location for APXS (and MAHLI). As always, the rover’s developers rose to the technical challenge and ultimately found a safe location for APXS on top of a cliff visible just above and to the left of the image’s center. Thanks to the green light from SRAP, Curiosity finally found its (inexpensive) target and was able to conduct APXS.
NASA’s Curiosity rover acquired this image of the target area, including the Hale Telescope and Fan Palm layered rocks, with its forward hazard avoidance camera on April 22, 2025 (sol 4518, or Martian day 4518, of the Mars Science Laboratory mission) at 11:03:37 UTC. NASA/JPL-Caltech
NASA’s Mars rover Curiosity captured this image of its footprints on July 26, 2025. The robotic scientist is exploring the area at the base of Mount Sharp, a 5-kilometer (3-mile) high mountain. The mountain’s pale peak is visible at the upper right; the rim of Gale Crater, where the mountain is located, is visible on the horizon at the upper left. Curiosity landed on the crater floor 13 years ago.
A month earlier, the rover entered an area filled with box-shaped formations. Studying these formations could help determine whether microbial life could have survived in the depths of Mars billions of years ago, extending the planet’s habitability even further during its drying period.
NASA/JPL-Caltech
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